<h3>Introduction</h3>
<ul>
<ul>
<li style="text-align: justify;" aria-level="1">Several researchers examined how soil may be adversely affected by climate change and the increase in sea level.</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;" aria-level="1">The present state of affairs is critical and jeopardizes not just the viability of agriculture, but the natural system as a whole.</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;" aria-level="1">The consequent soil deterioration and saltwater intrusion have led to water shortages that severely affect agriculture, thereby farmers&rsquo; subsistence and food security.</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;" aria-level="1">Recent research has shown that the Nile Delta in Egypt is home to the bulk of the salt-affected farmland and is highly vulnerable to more damage.&nbsp;</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;" aria-level="1">The problem of saltwater intrusion in agricultural soil can now be seen as requiring adaptation along with mitigation.</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;" aria-level="1">Agricultural research programs have already made investments in cutting-edge technology with the aim of assisting crop adaptability in the Nile Delta, which includes saline agriculture.</li>
</ul>
</ul>
For saline agriculture to advance, all stakeholders must work in cooperation to tackle relevant transdisciplinary and inclusive policy solutions.
<h3>Salt-Affected Soils</h3>
Reflecting on the issue of seawater intrusion is one way of addressing a wider issue: the necessity of conserving deltas in Egypt, which is crucial for farmer subsistence and ensuring food security. The Nile Delta stretches over 240 km of the Mediterranean shoreline, from Alexandria in the west to Port Said in the east, making it one of the biggest river deltas in the world (Mahgoub, 2020). However, as of 2021, 15% of Egypt&rsquo;s productive farmland has already been harmed by saltwater intrusion (Negacz, 2021). The buildup of salt in soil layers is caused by a number of factors, including poor irrigation management, insufficient drainage, and climate change (SALAD, 2020). Research suggests that climate change and its potential effects are detrimental to saltwater intrusion processes (Sefelnasr and Sherif, 2014). Changes in precipitation patterns, seawater levels, and average temperatures brought on by climate change in the Mediterranean area contribute to an amplification of salt buildup in soil (Begmuratov, 2019).
The 1.6 millimeter annual rise in sea level has exacerbated Egypt&rsquo;s problem of saltwater intrusion and the salinization of agriculture, particularly near the borders of the delta southwest of Alexandria (ElShinnawy and Almaliki, 2021). According to an early soil study, the proportions of salt-affected soils to the overall amount of farmed land were 60% in the Lower Delta, 25% in the Middle Delta, 20% in the Upper Delta and Middle Egypt, and 25% in the Upper Egypt (Kotb et al., 2000; Negacz, 2021). Recent research suggests that 30%- 40% of the soils in the Nile delta are classed as damaged by salt (SALAD, 2020). Furthermore, the anticipation that ocean levels will rise faster than the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)&rsquo;s predictions, and in consequence worsen the salinity of soils, is propounded by Sefelnasr and Sherif (2014). As such, the current and anticipated state of affairs is grave and endangers not only the viability of agriculture, but also the entire natural system (Kotb et al., 2000).
<h3>The Farmer on Saline Soil&nbsp;</h3>
Egypt's field crop production and associated agricultural jobs are centered on the Nile Delta, which makes up approximately 50% of the country's agricultural area (Gouda in Ewis Omar and Negm, 2020). With the Nile Delta having been named &ldquo;one of the world's three extreme vulnerability zones,&rdquo; Egyptian farmers are expected to be further exposed to the severe effects of climate change (Gouda in Ewis Omar and Negm, 2020). Salinity intrusion has a significant influence on farmer&rsquo;s infrastructure, vegetation, and livelihoods (Habiba et al. 2014). Meanwhile, already existing issues of population growth, land fragmentation, and increased soil salinity limit farmers' resistance to mitigate the negative effects of climate change (CAPMAS, 2017; Gouda in Ewis Omar and Negm, 2020). Thus, addressing soil salinity is required to sustain agricultural productivity, farmers' livelihoods, particularly small-scale farmers, and the safety of the nation's food supply (FAO and ITPS, 2015).&nbsp;
The Nile Delta&rsquo;s agricultural land, which is struggling to feed millions of subsistence farmers, has been weakened by water shortages caused by soil erosion and saltwater intrusion (Saleh, 2014). Farmers are voicing concern over consequent freshwater shortages. For example, in Quloba village, in the Upper Egyptian province of Minia, farmer Mostafa Metwally waited for his turn to irrigate his &lsquo;thirsty&rsquo; half-feddan (acre) of land. The present water constraint, which he claimed has gotten worse over the last 20 years, has reduced the profitability of his produce (Mahmoud, 2017). In 2014, Egypt's then Irrigation Minister, Mohamed Abdel-Ati, had cautioned that millions of people in the Nile Delta might face displacement and that billions of dollars of investments are likely to be lost if Egypt does not find methods to adapt to environmental change (Saleh, 2014).
<h3>To Overcome or to Embrace?</h3>
Without question, immediate action is needed to protect the Delta&rsquo;s soils from climate change-related saltwater seepage. The issue of saltwater intrusion is causing an increasing yield gap, resulting in an increasing difference between actual crop yields and potential crop yields if optimum agricultural techniques and technology were used in agricultural lands (FAO and ITPS, 2015). To resolve the issue of yield gap, efforts instigated by farmers and agricultural authorities, as well as public funds, are likely to be channeled towards recovering freshwater supply (Negacz, 2021). However, with the knowledge of the changing nature of soil salinity, and the challenging nature of its mitigation, the opportunities offered by increased salinity may need to start being considered (Dam, 2022). Instead of making aggressive attempts to mitigate the effects of climate change, new adaptation strategies for saltwater intrusion in agricultural soil may need to be integrated into wider strategies (Begmuratov, 2019).&nbsp;
Sustainable adaptation techniques include finding and advancing saline agricultural cultivation practices and adopting salt-tolerant types and crops. Numerous efforts have been made over the past few decades to determine if it is possible to grow food in salty circumstances (SALAD, 2022). To this end, significant scientific findings supporting the viability of saline agriculture were reached by different research groups. For example, research by the Soil, Water and Environment Research Institute (SWERI) conducted in Egypt has demonstrated that adding carbon-rich biochar to soil irrigated with saline water would increase or improve crop production, namely for wheat (University of Utah, 2020).&nbsp; Similar efforts were also made by some small-scale projects. For instance, in 2010, the International Center for Biosaline Agriculture (ICBA) collaborated with the Desert Research Center and the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation to identify genotypes with better stress-tolerance and productivity under saline conditions, including safflower and quinoa, in the lands of Suez, Beni Suef, and Al-Wadi Al-Jadid (Begmuratov, 2019).
<h3>Saline Agriculture&nbsp;</h3>
To prevent a decline in economic wellbeing and consequent migration away from these climate-vulnerable areas, innovation in land use is needed in the Nile Delta region (Hassani. Azapagic, and Shokri, 2020). Utilizing cutting-edge technologies in saline agriculture will support attempts to adapt to climate change and make it possible for farmers and decision makers to take a step towards protecting the Nile Delta. The next phase of saline agriculture, however, demands that all relevant stakeholders collaborate to address applicable transdisciplinary and inclusive solutions (Kotb et al., 2000). To this end, a roadmap towards addressing the following points is recommended:&nbsp;
First, make relevant authorities concerned with climate and agriculture take steps beyond research, and towards implementing policies that promote high-value crops grown in saline water. This pertains to having the authorities effectively look into goods and food items produced in saline water to close gaps between ongoing technological research and agricultural policy.&nbsp;
Second, raise farmers&acute; awareness about the competitive advantage and market ability of these crops. Awareness campaigns and training that align with the abovementioned governmental policies will highlight the exclusive edge, competitive advantage and distinct traits of saline farms products to farmers, hence enabling them to enhance the marketing of these products.&nbsp;
A recent study on tomato irrigation conducted at Minia University found that the crops irrigated with higher salinity levels produced more fruits per plant, and had a longer shelf-life (Abdel-Mageed et al., 2018). Making farmers aware of the potential of saline agriculture will not only deem it more attractive to the farmer and the market. In addition, it will also enable farmers to focus on developing Unique Selling Propositions (USP) for saline water products -whether it is their high yield, rich nutritional benefits, or enhanced flavor (Dam, 2022). This will allow farmers along with authorities to push back on the marginalization of salty land and saline water foods (Dam, 2022).
Third, enhance farmers&rsquo; sense of security and ownership by highlighting the socio-economic benefits of saline agriculture, all the while engaging traditional practices in strategies for saline agriculture. To ensure applicable and flexible solutions, it is vital to consider the elements that shape farmers' decisions, and conditions or incentives that push them to shift their agricultural calendar.&nbsp;
Socio-economic benefits that influence farmer&rsquo;s decision making include the level of knowledge accessibility, enhanced skills, earned income, and job opportunities (Abdelmoneim et al., 2020).&nbsp; As farmers are expected to modify whole agricultural cycles, their individual and communal perspectives must be consulted and reflected in strategies for streamlining saline agriculture.&nbsp;
To this end, it is vital that farmers&rsquo; traditional knowledge and existing response mechanisms to climate variability are centralized when building strategies for saline agriculture. This will not only increase their sense of security, but also their sense of ownership.&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;
<hr>
References
<ul>
<li style="font-size: 10pt;">Abdel-Mageed, Y., et al. (2018). Potassium fertilization role in tomato tolerance of water salinity and stress under drip irrigation system. Journal of Soil Sciences and Agricultural Engineering, 9(8), 295&ndash;306. <a href="https://doi.org/10.21608/jssae.2018.35876">https://doi.org/10.21608/jssae.2018.35876</a></li>
<li style="font-size: 10pt;">Abdelmoneim, H., et al. (2020). Social Impact of Saline Agriculture Development Project on Smallholder Farmers in North Sinai Governorate. Journal of Environmental Science, 36(3), 127-148. doi: 10.21608/jes.2016.132023</li>
<li style="font-size: 10pt;">Begmuratov, A. (2019, July 10). Egyptian farmers pin high hopes on biosaline agriculture. Retrieved October 10, 2022, from https://www.biosaline.org/news/2019-07-10-6831</li>
<li style="font-size: 10pt;">CAPMAS (2017) Egypt 2018 statistical abstract. CAPMAS, Cairo, Egypt</li>
<li style="font-size: 10pt;">Dam, L. (2022, April 21). Inspiration Guide on Saline Farming, Interreg VB North Sea Region Programme. Retrieved October 10, 2022, from <a href="https://northsearegion.eu/salfar/news/inspiration-guide-on-saline-farming/">https://northsearegion.eu/salfar/news/inspiration-guide-on-saline-farming/</a></li>
<li style="font-size: 10pt;">Elshinnawy, I.A., &amp; Almaliki, A.H. (2021). Vulnerability Assessment for Sea Level Rise Impacts on Coastal Systems of Gamasa Ras El Bar Area, Nile Delta, Egypt. Sustainability (Basel, Switzerland), 13(7), 3624.</li>
<li style="font-size: 10pt;">FAO and ITPS. 2015. Status of the World&rsquo;s Soil Resources (SWSR) &ndash; Technical Summary. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils, Rome, Italy</li>
<li style="font-size: 10pt;">Gouda, D.M. (2020). Climate Change, Agriculture and Rural Communities&rsquo; Vulnerability in the Nile Delta. In: Ewis Omran, ES., Negm, A. (eds) Climate Change Impacts on Agriculture and Food Security in Egypt. Springer Water. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41629-4_22</li>
<li style="font-size: 10pt;">Habiba, U., et al. (2014). Salinity-induced livelihood stress in coastal region of Bangladesh. In Water insecurity: A social dilemma. Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S2040-7262(2013)0000013013&nbsp;</li>
<li style="font-size: 10pt;">Hassani, A., Azapagic, A., Shokri, N. (2020). Predicting long-term dynamics of soil salinity and sodicity on a global scale. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences - PNAS, 117(52), 33017-33027.</li>
<li style="font-size: 10pt;">Kotb, T., et al. (2000). Soil salinization in the Nile Delta and related policy issues in Egypt. Agricultural Water Management, 43(2), 239-261.</li>
<li style="font-size: 10pt;">Mahgoub, A. (2021). Measuring the ecological preference for growth of 150 of the most influential weeds in weed community structure associated with agronomic and horticultural crops. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 28(10), 5593-5608.&nbsp;</li>
<li style="font-size: 10pt;">Mahmoud, M. (2017, January 13). Egyptian farmers fear drought, and dam: 'without the Nile there is no life'. Retrieved October 10, 2022, from https://www.middleeasteye.net/features/egyptian-farmers-fear-drought-and-dam-without-nile-there-no-life</li>
<li style="font-size: 10pt;">Negacz, K. (2021).&nbsp;Future of sustainable agriculture in saline environments&nbsp;(First ed.). Boca Raton.</li>
<li style="font-size: 10pt;">SALAD. (2022, January 25). Salinity problems in Egypt - saline agriculture. Retrieved October 10, 2022, from <a href="https://www.saline-agriculture.com/en/news/salinity-problems-in-egypt">https://www.saline-agriculture.com/en/news/salinity-problems-in-egypt</a></li>
<li style="font-size: 10pt;">Saleh, H. (2018, September 04). Egyptian farmers hit as Nile Delta comes under threat. Retrieved October 10, 2022, from <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/b43bfd4a-a54c-11e8-8ecf-a7ae1beff35b">https://www.ft.com/content/b43bfd4a-a54c-11e8-8ecf-a7ae1beff35b</a></li>
<li style="font-size: 10pt;">Sefelnasr, A., and Sherif, M. (2014). Impacts of Seawater Rise on Seawater Intrusion in the Nile Delta Aquifer, Egypt. Ground Water, 52(2), 264-276.</li>
<li style="font-size: 10pt;">University of Utah . (2020, July 10). Investigating biosaline agriculture to advance food security in Egypt. The U Water Center. Retrieved October 10, 2022, from https://water.utah.edu/2020/07/10/investigating-biosaline-agriculture-to-advance-food-security-in-egypt/</li>
</ul>

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